Introduction
Terrorism, from a Latin word meaning “to frighten,” has been used by various groups throughout history. During the Reign of Terror in the late eighteenth century, Englishman Edmund Burke used the term “terrorism” to describe the violent acts of the new French rulers. Later, the term “terrorist” was used to describe those who used violence to challenge the ruling powers. In the twentieth century, this included anarchists and violent left-wing groups. However, in the latter half of the twentieth century, terrorism took on a more global aspect, as terrorist groups, including those made up of religious fundamentalists, conducted acts of violence outside their countries of origin.
The global reach of terrorism means that these acts have come to affect more people than just the intended victims and members of targeted groups. The worldwide media coverage of terrorist acts has increased the fear and intimidation that these acts generate. For example, footage of the second airplane striking the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, was shown live on national television and replayed on televisions around the globe. The Internet has also enabled terrorist groups to increase exposure of their activities and threats to the world.
Defining Terrorism
There is no universally accepted definition of terrorism. It has commonly been used to describe violent, intimidating acts on the part of governments, dissidents, and groups following a particular religion or ideology. The US government defines terrorism as politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. It also defines a terrorist group as any group practicing, or that has significant subgroups that practice, international terrorism. Terrorists do not view themselves as such but rather as patriots or true believers. Their efforts are focused on initiating changes they believe will not occur under the present regime (which they believe is misguided), or on enlightening or punishing those who do not share their beliefs.
Although definitions of terrorism vary, terrorist acts tend to share certain elements. Terrorism typically involves the use of collective violence, which often takes an unconventional form. This violence is aimed at innocent citizens and is meant to bring about change by instilling fear and intimidation. Often religion or another ideology is used to justify the acts of terror.
The violence is typically premeditated and functions to reduce or destroy the sense of security felt by a group of citizens within a society. It can take the form of kidnapping, torture, assassination, bombing, poisoning, or destruction of property. Whichever form these violent acts take, they are largely unpredictable, making it difficult for people to protect themselves from becoming victims.
Victims of terrorism are usually noncombatants and, therefore, innocent parties by definition, though terrorists might say that no one is innocent. Regardless, the majority of the victims are not usually in a position to bring about the changes the terrorists are seeking. These sought-after changes range from a new regime, to the destruction or removal of a particular group of citizens within a nation, to political recognition of the terrorist group.
Terrorist acts have the immediate goal of producing damage and the far-reaching goal of creating fear and intimidating government officials or a group of citizens. In addition to producing suffering or death among direct victims, terrorist acts make other members of the victims’ group or government officials afraid that they may be the next targets of violence. To add credibility or legitimacy, terrorists often describe their actions in terms of religion. They present acts of terror as attempts to purify a society of infidels, making these acts part of a “holy war.”
Some types of terrorism, particularly those involving victims who can be identified based on their race, religion, or ethnicity, resemble
hate crimes. In a hate crime, it is the identifiable group that is the primary focus of the attacks, and domination or removal of the group (through death or exile) is the reason for the attacks. Examples of this type of terrorism are the Nazi’s attempt to eliminate the Jews in Germany and the Ku Klux Klan’s treatment of African Americans in the United States. Both terrorism and hate crimes attempt to instill fear in and to intimidate the identified group.
Types of Terrorists
Research has attempted to determine the characteristics of terrorists; however, the changes in the nature of terrorism and its diversity have made this a difficult task. Terrorists have ranged from middle class to lower class, from better educated to less educated, and from state-supported to privately funded (mercenaries). Although most terrorists have been men, female terrorists are increasingly common. As long as the label of “terrorist” continues to be used, the profiles of terrorists are likely to change.
In his 1976 book on terrorism, Frederick J. Hacker described three types of terrorists: criminals, crazies, and crusaders. He found that the majority of terrorists fell into the crusader category. However, the tendency to view terrorists as pathological or criminal may be an impediment to understanding the psychology of terrorists. Early studies from the Western perspective viewed the terrorists and their actions as abnormal or at the least criminal. However, the growing body of knowledge produced by research shows that the majority of terrorists are psychologically normal and their acts are quite rational. This does not preclude the existence of psychopathic terrorists; it just means that this is not the norm.
It is important when studying terrorism and terrorists to consider the similarities and not just focus on the differences. The differences may be mainly among the methods used to accomplish goals rather than the characteristics of the individual terrorists. To gain a more accurate and realistic understanding of terrorists and how they function, researchers must see the world through their eyes by studying their individual psychopathologies and behavior, as well as their group, social, and organizational psychology.
The typical terrorists’ mind-set is "us against them." This mind-set usually has been developing for generations and therefore acquired through a socialization process. It may begin with an individual’s experiencing a perceived wrong at the hands of a government or a member of some identifiable group (the wrong does not have to be real or intended). In social identity theory, as the individual associates with others with similar experiences and perceptions, the individual’s personal identity is reinforced, and he or she begins to identify with a group.
Terrorists do not see themselves as terrorists nor do they apply any other socially negative label to their identity. They view themselves as soldiers or warriors with a legitimate cause and, therefore, may share the same psychology as government soldiers. They use violence because they believe it is the only appropriate or available method of achieving the changes they seek. Consequently, they rationally perceive their actions as legitimate acts to accomplish justified goals. The violent nature of their attacks, designed to produce fear and intimidation, is a form of psychological warfare.
Cultural ideologies play an important role in terrorism. For example, cultures and religions have different values and beliefs about life and death. Because some religions believe there are or can be rewards received after death, in these religions, death is not perceived as a loss but as a gain in the afterlife. This makes martyrdom more acceptable in some cultures and provides a rationale for suicidal terrorist acts.
Research has begun to show that suicide bombers, who are typically volunteers, should not be compared to suicidal individuals. British researcher Ellen Townsend has argued that suicides of terrorists and those of nonterrorists have few factors in common. The suicides of terrorists might be considered to be altruistic suicides (if judged to be any type of suicide) or acts of martyrdom, driven largely by religious convictions, social pressure, and group process. To understand the psychology of suicide bombers, many factors—the individual’s development, education, mental status, and environmental influences—must be considered.
Victims
Terrorists usually attack people while they are involved in routine activities, such as work and recreation. Therefore, any place where many people are engaged in everyday activities can become the target of a terrorist attack. In many cases, these locations have not been built or designed with protection in mind, which makes them vulnerable to and attractive targets for terrorists. These areas include offices, shopping centers, restaurants, schools, entertainment venues, and major traffic arteries. Ordinarily, there is little cause to suspect danger in these locations.
When a terrorist attack occurs, the effects go beyond the immediate victims and extend well past the time of the attack. Many of those who survived the attack itself are likely to experience psychological trauma, including post-traumatic stress disorder. In addition, the family members and friends of the deceased and the survivors, as well as the first responders, rescue personnel, and support personnel, will also experience trauma. Many of these individuals will develop secondary post-traumatic stress disorder. Physical and mental recovery may take years, if it can be accomplished.
Bibliography
Combs, Cindy C. Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2013. Print.
Gow, Kathryn, and Marek J. Celinski. Mass Trauma: Impact and Recovery Issues. Hauppauge: Nova Science, 2013. Print.
Hacker, Frederick J. Crusaders, Criminals, Crazies: Terror and Terrorism in Our Time. New York: Norton, 1976. Print.
Krahé, Barbara. The Social Psychology of Aggression. 2nd ed. Hoboken: Taylor, 2013. Print.
Kreitler, Shulamith, and Henya Shanun-Klein. Studies of Grief and Bereavement. Hauppauge: Nova Science, 2013.
Martin, Gus. Essentials of Terrorism: Concepts and Controversies. Los Angeles: Sage, 2008. Print.
Silke, Andrew. “Courage in Dark Places: Reflections on Terrorist Psychology.” Social Research 71 (2004): 177–98. Print.
Townsend, Ellen. “Suicide Terrorists: Are They Suicidal?” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 37 (2007): 35–49. Print.
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