Explain how the following sentences could be interpreted in more than one way. 1. Flying planes can be dangerous. (sign at a model-airplane...

These sentences are examples of ambiguous sentences, which means they can be interpreted in different ways. The question asks to explain the different ways they could be interpreted. Let's take a look at these sentences and I will suggest alternatives.

Flying planes can be dangerous. 

• This can be a general statement that airplanes are dangerous. Since all airplanes can fly, it would not be a stretch to call airplanes 'flying planes.'


• What the author...

These sentences are examples of ambiguous sentences, which means they can be interpreted in different ways. The question asks to explain the different ways they could be interpreted. Let's take a look at these sentences and I will suggest alternatives.

Flying planes can be dangerous. 

• This can be a general statement that airplanes are dangerous. Since all airplanes can fly, it would not be a stretch to call airplanes 'flying planes.'


• What the author of the sign most likely meant to communicate was that flying the model planes is dangerous and should not be done. "Flying the planes is dangerous" would have been an easy fix.

Please remove your clothes when the cycle is complete.  

• This is a somewhat humorous sentence because it can be interpreted as a directive for someone to take off their clothing after the laundry cycle is complete.


• Obviously, the proprietor of the laundromat would prefer that his clientele stay fully dressed. The real message is to remove your clothes from the machine when the machine has stopped running. A simple fix of this sentence would be: Remove clothes from machine after cycle is complete.

Slow children ahead.  

• This can be misunderstood to mean that there are children nearby that move slowly.


• The actual intent of the message is to instruct vehicles to drive slowly because there are children in the area.  This should have been worded as follows: Drive slowly, children ahead.

Where was Black Beauty born and raised in Black Beauty by Anna Sewell?

Black Beauty is born and grows up in the English countryside.

Beauty remembers first a pleasant meadow in which he lives with his mother. He has many a happy day, frolicking in this meadow and being well-treated by the master. His mother teaches "Darkie," as he is called by the master, to not bite or kick, telling him of the proud line from which he has come. His mother tells him of his grandmother, who...

Black Beauty is born and grows up in the English countryside.

Beauty remembers first a pleasant meadow in which he lives with his mother. He has many a happy day, frolicking in this meadow and being well-treated by the master. His mother teaches "Darkie," as he is called by the master, to not bite or kick, telling him of the proud line from which he has come. His mother tells him of his grandmother, who had a very sweet temperament, and his father, who had a great name, as well as his grandfather, who won the "cup" at the Newmarket races on two occasions.

As "Darkie" grows to adulthood, Squire Gordon comes to look at him and seems to like the young stallion. He tells the master that when the horse is trained, he will be interested in purchasing him. "Darkie" learns to pull a carriage by going in double harness with his mother, whose example he follows. She instructs him to behave well in order to be treated well.

Then, in early May a man comes from Squire Gordon's and takes "Darkie" to Birtwick Park, which is outside the village of Birtwick. He lives with the Gordons, who rename him Beauty, for a number of years. Later on, Mrs. Gordon's health becomes endangered and she must move to a warmer climate. Beauty and the other horses are sold. He and Ginger are sold as a pair to pull a carriage and go to Earlshall Park.

What are home remedies for infectious diseases?

Definition

Home remedies are forms of treatment or cures for illnesses and diseases. These remedies are made from common, usually inexpensive ingredients found in the home or garden.

History

Western medicine depends primarily on prescribed or over-the-counter medications to treat or cure disease. Historically, however, women (especially) in the home employed various herbs or foods to treat illness. By trial and error, some remedies worked effectively, while others did not. Those that successfully cured illnesses were passed through generations as accepted treatments for common ailments.

Some home remedies, such as chicken soup for an upper respiratory illness or
the common
cold, have become traditions, and studies have demonstrated a
scientific basis to explain their success. For example, researchers published
findings in the October, 2000 issue of Chest, the journal of the
American College of Chest Physicians. They detailed how eating chicken soup
stopped neutrophil migration, providing a mild anti-inflammatory
response that suppressed cold symptoms. Other home remedies also have scientific
rationale and include willow bark powder for headache. Willow bark contains
salicin, a substance later compounded into acetylsalicylic acid or
aspirin, which inhibits the production of prostaglandins, providing analgesic relief of pain and
fever.

General Types

One type of home remedy comes from the use of herbs grown in kitchen gardens or in containers in small living spaces. These herbs can be harvested as medicinals, flavorings, insect repellant, or room deodorants. Herbs that might be grown for medicinal use include lavender, yarrow, sage, bee balm, and flowering thyme.

Herbs can be processed in different ways to make them useful home remedies.
They may be used to make infusions, decoctions, or tinctures for illnesses.
Various teas, for example, can be steeped for ten to twenty minutes to become an
infusion for the relief of indigestion or nausea, to use as an antiseptic foot
soak, or to perfume a bath or pillow to manage insomnia.
Drinking tea has historically been a preventive measure and a restorative option
for health. The intense level of polyphenols or catechins in green tea acts as an
antioxidant to promote health and support the immune system against disease. Other
forms of home remedies include poultices, ointments, salves, elixirs, tonics, and
aromatics. Food in whole form, dried, or juiced can offer treatment to specific
ailments.

Home Remedies and Infections

Some home remedies seem to make common sense. For example, garlic has been used
for more than three thousand years as a home remedy for various ailments. Allicin,
one of about one hundred chemicals found in garlic, provides natural antibiotic, antiviral, and antifungal benefits. Garlic powder can be used in a foot soak to kill
the fungus of athlete’s foot, can be used to treat oral thrush, and can be
included in many recipes to add flavor yet also to destroy harmful bacteria in the
stomach.

Salt water, a safe and inexpensive home remedy, can be used as an effective antibiotic because many types of bacteria cannot live in a salty environment. Gargling with salt water to relieve a sore throat or toothache can be a valuable approach at home. Salt water can also be used as a topical treatment.

Echinacea has long been considered an effective home remedy for colds, earache, sore throats, and flu. The action of echinacea is antibiotic, antifungal, and antiviral and is believed to boost the immune system. Research in 2005 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine did not confirm the effectiveness of echinacea at a low dose, but studies continue about this popular herbal remedy.

The use of camphor, eucalyptus, and menthol, such as in vapor rubs, has been
found to display antifungal properties. A study at Michigan State College of
Nursing concluded that nail bed fungus can be treated effectively by application
of a vapor rub compound used twice daily. Thyme oil is also touted as an effective
home remedy for fungal infections of the nails.

Other home remedies for infections include Melaleuca alternifolia or Austrian tea tree oil, goldenseal, pau d’arco bark made into tea, oil of oregano, and manuka honey. Future studies of home remedies may prove them useful in treating infections.

Impact

At a time when medications are too expensive for most budgets and which come with undesired side effects, home remedies are becoming more and more attractive to many in mainstream society. Consumers are seeking less costly, safe alternatives to treat illnesses and to manage diseases. Many people are uninsured, have high deductibles on their health insurance policies, or have experienced adverse reactions to traditional pharmaceuticals. People from all walks of life have returned to time-tested approaches to disease treatment and health promotion. They have decided that the home and garden remedy approach to treating illness makes sense, and the price is right. Many health care providers, too, support the use of safe home remedies.

One should be cautious, however, before using home remedies, especially if one has a complicated illness or is taking medicines (prescribed or over the counter) that might interact with a home remedy. One should always consult with a health care provider before using home remedies to determine their usefulness and safeness in treatment.

Bibliography

Freeman, Lyn. Mosby’s Complementary and Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. 2d ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby, 2004.

Micozzi, Marc S., ed. Fundamentals of Complementary and Integrative Medicine. 3d ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Saunders/Elsevier, 2006.

Rennard, Barbara O., et al. “Chicken Soup Inhibits Neutrophil Chemotaxis in Vitro” Chest 118, no. 4 (2000): 1150-1157. Also available at http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/118/4/1150.full.pdf+html.

Trivieri, Larry, Jr., and John W. Anderson, eds. Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide. 2d ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 2002.

White, Martha, et al. Traditional Home Remedies. Dublin, N.H.: Yankee, 1997.

Identify modern examples along the spectrum of inter-group relations in the United States or in foreign countries.

Sociologists study inter-group relations along a spectrum that measures tolerance between the groups. At the least-tolerant end of the spectrum is genocide, in which a dominant group attempts to wipe out other groups. A nonprofit group called Genocide Watch monitors cases of genocide around the world. Unfortunately, genocide still exists in the modern age. Most cases of genocide in the world today are perpetrated in Africa. Genocide Watch has declared three genocide emergencies (which means they are already happening) in Africa. The three countries in which one ethnic group is attempting to eliminate other groups are Sudan, Congo, and Ethiopia. In Sudan, the targets are ethnic groups in Darfur (Fur, Massalit, and Zhagawa groups). Over a quarter of a million people have been killed in this example of genocide.

On the other extreme of the spectrum is amalgamation, in which ethnic groups combine through intermarriage and become one. In the United States today, European ethnic groups have combined to the degree that they are predominantly identified as "whites." In the past, a variety of distinct ethnic groups from Europe immigrated to the United States. This is especially true of the period between the end of the Civil War and the beginning of World War I. Germans, Italians, Slavs, Poles, and Greeks are some examples of these groups. For decades, these groups remained ethnically separate and the group dynamics would have been identified as pluralism. Over time, and even today, people from different European ethnic groups marry one another and the distinctions have essentially disappeared.

Intermarriage between whites and African-Americans was prohibited by law in many states until the Supreme Court outlawed the practice in 1967. While there are many examples of interracial marriage in the United States, it is not possible to use as an example of amalgamation because racial and ethnic distinctions between the groups have not disappeared.

What is the relationship between cats and infectious disease?

Definition

Feline-to-human infections are zoonotic diseases that are transmitted
through bites and scratches, through contact with shared vectors (such as ticks, fleas, or mosquitoes), through shared environments (such as
contaminated soil), and through direct contact with infected skin.

Bites and scratches. About 1 percent of emergency room visits are
attributed to injuries caused by animal bites. Out of those cases, the majority
(85 to 90 percent) involves dog bites and a small minority (5 to 10 percent)
involves cat bites. Despite the disparities, few dog-related bites result in
infectious complications; 50 to 80 percent of cat bites (depending on the source)
become infected. Although a dog can exert 450 pounds of pressure per inch when
biting, canine teeth are relatively dull. A feline’s long and sharp teeth, in
contrast, can penetrate human skin, create deep puncture wounds, and penetrate
tissue surrounding bones. Consequently, a cat-related bite wound is more likely to
result in an infection.

Pasteurella

multocida is a gram-negative bacteria found in the mouths of most
cats. The bacteria are very common and can be transmitted through cat scratches,
bites, or saliva (by licking). The first signs of infection (pain, swelling, and
redness) usually occur within two to twelve hours of being bitten.
Pasteurellosis, the disease caused by the bite, can spread quickly through the body
from the wound site, so one should seek medical attention immediately. Bites to
the hand require special attention. If left untreated, the infection can cause
complications, such as upper respiratory problems, pneumonia, prosthetic-valve
endocarditis, and, less often, meningitis and brain abscesses.

Shared vectors. Cat scratch fever (CSF), or bartonellosis, is transmitted through cat scratches and
bites. Between twenty thousand and twenty-five thousand people in the United
States are diagnosed with this infection every year, but the disease is most
prevalent in warm, humid climates where fleas thrive. Although 30 to 40 percent of
healthy looking cats may be carriers, kittens most often transmit
CSF. When fleas bite an infected cat, the bacteria are spread through flea
excretions onto the cat’s skin and, ultimately, to the cat’s claws or saliva.

CSF is more common among persons with suppressed immune systems (persons with HIV or who are undergoing chemotherapy) and with children because their immunity is less developed and because they are more likely to roughhouse with cats. Symptoms include a rash or blister at the wound site; swollen lymph nodes around the head, neck, and upper limbs; fever; headache; and sore muscles and joints. The infection usually disappears in four to eight weeks. In immunosuppressed persons, however, complications, often severe, include high fever, sweats, chills, vomiting, and weight loss. Flea control is the key to preventing this disease, so one should consult a veterinarian.

Shared environment. Salmonellosis is a common bacterial disease of the
intestinal tract of many animals. It usually is contracted by eating undercooked
meat and eggs or contaminated vegetables. When cats eat raw meat or wild prey,
they are more likely to contract this bacteria and transmit it through
contaminated stools. Salmonellosis is one of the few infections that can be passed
from humans to cats and back to humans.

Following a twelve- to thirty-six-hour incubation period, symptoms include headache, fever, diarrhea, nausea, and dehydration. The best prevention is to feed cats processed foods and to wash hands thoroughly after cleaning litter boxes. Also, a person who has a cat as a pet should be extra vigilant if the cat has diarrhea.

Another form of transmission in a shared environment is contact with cat feces
contaminated with
Toxoplasma gondii, a single-celled protozoal organism that
infects animals and birds. Only in the cat, however, does this organism find an
ideal host to reproduce and complete its life cycle. Cats become targets when they
ingest contaminated prey or raw meat, or infected soil. Once ingested, the
bacteria burrow into the cat’s intestine, and early-stage cells, called oocytes,
are eliminated in cat feces. The bacteria can also foul soil, water, gardens, sand
boxes, or any location where an infected cat defecates. Because toxoplasma oocysts
require one to four days to incubate to become infective, it is important to empty
litter daily and dispose of waste properly to prevent this serious
parasitic
disease.

Typically, symptoms include body aches, swollen lymph nodes, headaches, fever,
fatigue, and eye infections. However, in immunosuppressed persons or in pregnant
women, complications can be serious. Pregnant women who contract toxoplasmosis
have a 30 percent chance of passing this infection to their fetus, which can
result in stillborn births or miscarriage. Even children who survive may develop
complications, such as seizures, an enlarged spleen, jaundice, and eye infections.
Additionally, research has linked toxoplasma to mental illness such as
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in adults.

Pregnant or immunocompromised persons should ask another person to change a litter box daily, and those who clean the litter box should wear gloves and wash hands thoroughly afterward. Cat owners can limit exposure by keeping cats indoors.

Direct contact. Ringworm is a fungal infection, whose manifestation in cats includes, most
commonly, Microsporum canis; Trichophyton,
through rodent contact; and M. gypseum, through contact with
contaminated soil. Ringworm is highly contagious and is spread through direct
contact with an infected animal or through spores shed in carpets, furniture,
bedding, and air filters. Spores can last eighteen months, so treatment must
include thorough house cleaning. Most common among kittens, the resulting ringworm
lesions consist of localized hair loss, scaling, and crusting, although some cats
are asymptomatic carriers. Treating cats with medication is highly recommended. To
reduce environmental contamination, infected cats should be confined to one room
until they are ringworm free and until the household can be disinfected.

Lacasse, Alexandre, et al. “Pasteurella multocida Infection.” Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/224920-overview. Discusses the frequency, mortality rates, and clinical assessments of pasteurellosis.

Lamps, L. W., and M. A. Scott. “Cat-Scratch Disease: Historic, Clinical, and Pathologic Perspectives.” American Journal of Clinical Pathology 121, suppl. (2004): S71-S80. A multidisciplinary look at cat scratch fever.

Regnery, Russell, and John Tappero. “Unraveling Mysteries Associated with Cat-Scratch Disease, Bacillary Angiomatosis, and Related Syndromes.” Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January-March, 1995. Discusses the transmission of Bartonella henselae infection.

Reynolds, M. G., et al. “Epidemiology of Cat-Scratch Disease Hospitalizations Among Children in the United States.” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal24, no. 8 (August, 2005): 700-704. A study of cat scratch disease incidence rates and patterns in children.

Talan, D. A., et al. “Bacteriologic Analysis of Infected Dog and Cat Bites.” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 85-92. Discusses the particular dangers of cat bites and dog bites.

What is Campylobacter? |

Definition

Campylobacter is a slender, curved-rod, gram-negative bacterium. The genus Campylobacter was first proposed in 1963, at which time it included only C. fetus and C. bululus (later renamed C. sputorum). Campylobacter, the leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, has a corkscrew appearance. The pathogen propels itself with one or two flagella, depending on the subspecies. It thrives best in a nonacidic environment that is 3 to 5 percent oxygen and 2 to 10 percent carbon dioxide. It is sometimes found in nonchlorinated bodies of water, such as ponds and streams.

The primary source of
Campylobacter infection, or campylobacteriosis, in humans is C. jejuni, which accounts for about 90 percent of all Campylobacter infections worldwide and up to 99 percent of infections in the United States. One of the highest rates of Campylobacter infection is seen in New Zealand, with 158.6 cases per 100,000 people in 2012, compared to a far lower rate of 14.3 per 100,000 people in the United States in the same year. Even this high rate represents a marked decrease from 2006, which saw a record 383.5 cases per 100,000. The reasons for New Zealand's high rate of infection are unknown.

Humans are infected through the consumption of unpasteurized milk, contaminated water, or contaminated food, such as raw or undercooked meat, especially poultry. They may also be infected via physical contact with fecal material expelled from infected humans or animals.

It is estimated that about two million people experience symptomatic Campylobacter infections each year in the United States. The incidence of such infections is as much as six times greater in rural areas. This higher incidence may occur because people in rural locations are believed to be more likely to drink unpasteurized (raw) milk than are persons in urban settings.

Natural Habitat and Features

Campylobacter colonizes the intestinal tract, the urogenital tract, or the oral cavity of healthy and sick animals, particularly chickens. It is also found in the intestinal tract of humans. C. jejuni is found in human and bovine (cow) feces, while C. coli is commonly found in the feces of pigs, humans, and chickens and in contaminated water. C. helveticus is found in the feces of cats and dogs.

The acidity of the human stomach kills most ingested Campylobacter, but some of the bacteria survive and attach themselves to the intestinal epithelial cells or the mucus on these cells. They then reproduce and proliferate within the intestines. Some people do not react symptomatically to this colonization, while others develop severe diarrhea. The diarrhea may be caused by an inflammatory response that occurs in the intestine as a result of the bacterial presence, or it may result from toxins that are produced by Campylobacter, which affect fluid resorption and cause diarrhea. In most cases, Campylobacter remains in the intestine of humans; rarely, it migrates to the bloodstream or to the lymphatic system. Such a migration is unusual in persons with normal immune systems.

Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

Campylobacter infection has an incubation period of two to five days and lasts up to ten days. It is believed that fewer than five hundred organisms are required to cause an infection in the host. This is equivalent to about one drop of juice from an infected chicken.

An estimated 1 in 1,000 persons who are infected with Campylobacter develop Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), a neurological disorder and a leading cause of acute paralysis in the United States. Most infected persons recover in six to twelve months, but some never recover. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), up to 40 percent of all cases of GBS in the United States may be caused by infection with Campylobacter. When it occurs, GBS develops within two to four weeks after infection.

Persons with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) have an incidence of Campylobacter
that is about forty times greater than those without AIDS. Some persons without
AIDS have an immune deficiency in immunoglobulin A (IgA), thus increasing their
risk for infection with Campylobacter. Breast-fed babies have a
reduced risk for infection with Campylobacter, probably because
of the lactating woman’s transfer of maternal substances, particularly secretory IgA.

Drug Susceptibility

An increasing worldwide resistance of the Campylobacter pathogen to fluoroquinolone drugs has been noted since the late 1990s. Largely responsible for this resistance is the treatment of animals with fluoroquinolones to promote their growth. As a result, erythromycin (for children) and tetracycline (for adults) are now the recommended treatment drugs for campylobacteriosis. There is some resistance to erythromycin, but it is much lower than the resistance to fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin. Newer macrolide antibiotics, such as azithromycin and clarithromycin, are also effective.

Some studies have shown that Campylobacter infections acquired during travel are more resistant to antibiotics than those acquired at home. For example, in one study in the Netherlands, resistance to fluoroquinolone antibiotics was 54 percent in travel-related infections, while the rate of resistance was a significantly lower 33 percent in infections in the study subject’s native area.

Bibliography

Alfredson, David A., and Victoria Korolik. “Antibiotic Resistance and Resistance Mechanisms in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli.” FEMS Microbiology Letters 277.2 (2007): 123–32. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

“Campylobacter: Technical Information.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 18 Apr. 2013. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Janssen, Riny, et al. “Host-Pathogen Interactions in Campylobacter Infections: The Host Perspective.” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 21.3 (2008): 505–18. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Lopez, Liza, et al. Annual Report Concerning Foodborne Disease in New Zealand, 2012. Wellington: Ministry for Primary Industries, 2013. Ministry for Primary Industries. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Minocha, Anil, and Christine Adamec. The Encyclopedia of the Digestive System and Digestive Disorders. 2nd ed. New York: Facts on File, 2011. Print.

Nachamkin, Irving, Christine M. Szymanski, and Martin J. Blaser, eds. Campylobacter. 3rd ed. Washington: ASM, 2008. Print.

van Hees, B. C., et al. “Regional and Seasonal Differences in Incidence and Antibiotic Resistance of Campylobacter from a Nationwide Surveillance Study in the Netherlands: An Overview of 2000–2004.” Clinical Microbiology and Infection 13.3 (2007): 305–10. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

How are the Greasers and the Socs different?

One obvious difference between the Socs and the Greasers is their socioeconomic status.  The Greasers are poor and from poor families.  Often, the Greaser families are broken families as well.  Ponyboy and his brothers don't even have parents any longer.  Their welfare is dependent entirely upon themselves and the gang.  The Socs, on the other hand, are from much wealthier families.  They have nice clothes, nice things, and even have cars.  

I really couldn't...

One obvious difference between the Socs and the Greasers is their socioeconomic status.  The Greasers are poor and from poor families.  Often, the Greaser families are broken families as well.  Ponyboy and his brothers don't even have parents any longer.  Their welfare is dependent entirely upon themselves and the gang.  The Socs, on the other hand, are from much wealthier families.  They have nice clothes, nice things, and even have cars.  

I really couldn't see what Socs would have to sweat about--- good grades, good cars, good girls, madras and Mustangs and Corvairs--- Man, I thought, if I had worries like that I'd consider myself lucky.

Another difference between the two groups is their emotional base.  It's something that Ponyboy begins to see and understand after talking to Cherry early in the novel.  The Greasers feel their emotions very quickly and act on them.  Their emotions and responses are very visceral.  Conversely the Socs are an emotional wasteland.  They don't feel anything.  They have every need met, and everything is provided for them, so they don't ever have a deeply felt need or desire.  They are numb.  

That was the truth. Socs were always behind a wall of aloofness, careful not to let their real selves show through. I had seen a social-club rumble once. The Socs even fought coldly and practically and impersonally.

"That's why we're separated," I said. "It's not money, it's feeling--- you don't feel anything and we feel too violently."

Why is Faulkner’s “A Rose for Emily” considered a “ghost” story, and how is this presented throughout the story by the use of...

The reason people might refer to "A Rose for Emily" as a "ghost story" is that Faulkner himself once called it that. However, there is no appearance of a ghost in the story. Instead, the story is more appropriately considered "Southern Gothic" or "Gothic horror" in its genre. Gothic stories deal with spooky homes, eerie characters, and horrifying actions. This story has all these.

The symbols that make the story seem like a ghost story...

The reason people might refer to "A Rose for Emily" as a "ghost story" is that Faulkner himself once called it that. However, there is no appearance of a ghost in the story. Instead, the story is more appropriately considered "Southern Gothic" or "Gothic horror" in its genre. Gothic stories deal with spooky homes, eerie characters, and horrifying actions. This story has all these.

The symbols that make the story seem like a ghost story and carry out its Gothic theme include the imagery of Miss Emily silhouetted in the windows of her home, the rat poison, the taciturn servant, and the lime the councilmen spread around the home. At several points in the story, the townspeople observe Emily inside the home at night only through a window; she rarely goes out during the day. This image ensconces her in the reader's mind as the spooky recluse who lives in the home no one ever enters. Likewise, the hunched servant who speaks to no one but goes in and out of the home is reminiscent of the "Igor"-type servant in many Gothic tales. When Miss Emily goes to buy poison and refuses to tell the druggist what she wants it for, he wraps it up and writes "for rats" on the package. This certainly has nefarious overtones and foreshadows the murder that is revealed at the end of the story. When the townspeople decide to spread lime around the outside of the home to deal with its smell rather than confront Emily directly, it is the symbolic equivalent of using garlic to defend against vampires.

Another symbol is Miss Emily's watch that she wears on a chain tucked into her waist; the chain is visible but the watch is not, suggesting that time has stopped. The dust and acrid smell of Emily's house when the council men come to collect taxes are other elements that make the house seem spooky and potentially haunted.

While the story is not a true ghost story in that it does not feature a ghost, Faulkner obviously used Gothic elements and elements of horror to symbolize the way that Miss Emily had disconnected from her society and her time after she murdered her beloved.

What is sweating? |

Structure and Functions

Sweat glands are exocrine glands, which secrete products that are passed outside the body. There are two major types. Eccrine sweat glands excrete sweat that contains water and several salts. They are located in the skin throughout the body but are found in greater concentrations in the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and forehead. Apocrine sweat glands excrete sweat that contains water and fatty substances. They are primarily found in the armpits and genital area. When bacteria break down the fatty materials, distinctive sweat odors develop.

The primary function of sweating in humans is to regulate body temperature. When the body temperature rises, the blood flow to the skin increases by opening more capillaries in the skin. Since blood can hold heat and circulates throughout the body, the blood can transport heat from the inner core of the body, where the temperatures are higher and the heat is more insulated, to the surface, where the heat is less insulated. In the skin, the warm blood will transfer the heat to the surface, where sweat glands release sweat. When the sweat evaporates, changing its physical state from a liquid to a gas, significant amounts of heat are removed from the body.

Disorders and Diseases

Sweating is a normal process that is important for the temperature regulation (thermoregulation) of the body, but complications can arise. The most critical result of excess sweating is dehydration. The biggest risk for dehydration occurs when people exercise in hot, humid environments. Therefore, it is important to drink plenty of water. Additionally, when sweating a lot for a period of days, additional salts may be beneficial. Most sports drinks supply adequate salts. In extreme conditions, the excess loss of water in sweat can lead to heatstroke and death. When the body loses too much water, the sweating mechanism shuts down. Without the advantage of sweat evaporation to cool the body, the temperature will continue to rise until death ensues. Anyone who has symptoms of heat stress—such as a body temperature over 105 degrees Fahrenheit, cessation of sweating, or altered mental state—should get immediate medical attention. The intravenous administration of fluids by medical personnel will rehydrate the body quickly.

A less concerning disorder of sweating is hyperhidrosis. People with this condition sweat frequently and in excess of what is required to regulate body temperature. About 1 percent of people have this condition; it is often linked to obesity. There are numerous treatments but no cure. Typical treatments include surgery, medications, biofeedback, relaxation, hypnosis, and weight loss.

In July 2013, the American Heart Association published a study showing that sweating through excercise could reduce an individual's risk of stroke.

Bibliography

"Breaking a Sweat While Excercising Regularly May Help Reduce Strong Risk." American Heart Association. July 22, 2013.

Brooks, George A., Thomas D. Fahey, and Kenneth M. Baldwin. Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

"Hyperhidrosis (Excessive Sweating)." Mayo Clinic. September 21, 2012.

McArdle, William, Frank I. Natch, and Victor L. Natch. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance. 7th ed. Boston: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010.

"NIH-Funded Study Suggests That Moving More May Lower Stroke Risk." National Institutes of Health. July 18, 2013.

Powers, Scott K., and Edward T. Howley. Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

What are Leptospira? |

Definition

Leptospira is a genus of gram-negative, motile, obligate aerobic spirochetes that use only long-chain fatty acids as an energy source. Both free-living and parasitic forms of Leptospira exist.

Natural Habitat and Features

The name Leptospira was derived from the Greek words leptos and spira, meaning “thin coil.” Leptospires are 10 to 20 micrometers (µm) long and 0.1 µm thick and are tightly coiled in a right-handed manner around a central cylinder. They are highly motile, due to two periplasmic flagella that, as in other spirochetes, are attached to opposite ends of the protoplasmic cylinder, unattached at the other end, and extend about two-thirds of the way along the cylinder. The membrane cell wall of the cylinder is rigid, while the complex outer sheath is flexible. When the flagella rotate in the space between the sheath and the cylinder, the entire organism rotates in the opposite direction, allowing for motility.

Because Leptospira are so thin, they are difficult to visualize under a normal light microscope; most can be seen using dark-field or phase-contrast microscopy. All strains grow best at a pH level of 7.2 to 7.6. Pathogenic strains do best at a temperature between 82.4 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit (28–30 degrees Celsius), but some can grow at temperatures as low as 55.4 degrees Fahrenheit (13 degrees Celsius).

Visible growth on agar often takes four to seven days. Nonpathogenic strains, which are saprobic, do best at slightly lower temperatures, and many have minimal growth temperatures in the 41–50 degrees Fahrenheit (5–10 degrees Celsius) range. Visible growth on agar is usually apparent after two to three days. All species require long-chain fatty acids, which they break down through beta-oxidation, as their energy source. These fatty acids are usually supplied in vitro by the Ellinghausen-McCullough-Johnson-Harris medium.

No leptospires are able to use sugars as energy sources, but they can build needed sugars through Krebs cycle intermediates. Most pathogenic strains also require vitamins B1 and B12, and all strains require iron. The genome size is usually about four million base pairs, forming more than four thousand genes. The genome of L. interrogans consists of a larger 4.3-megabase chromosome and a smaller 359-kilobase chromosome. The Leptospira genome is larger than those of most other pathogenic spirochetes.

Taxonomic separation for many years has been by serotype, and more than 240 serotypes of Leptospira have been discovered. Genotypic DNA analysis has shown that strains that share the same serotype may be genetically distant, while closely related strains may show different serotypes. Modern Leptospira taxonomy uses genotyping and has placed most pathogenic serotypes in L. interrogans and most saprobic serotypes in L. biflexa. However, fifteen to twenty other less common, genetically distinct species have been postulated by genotyping.

Nonpathogenic strains can be found in many aquatic and damp habitats throughout the world, excluding polar regions. Pathogenic strains are parasitic or commensal in many animal species, including humans, but rodents, especially mice and rats, seem to serve as primary reservoirs for many pathogenic strains. In commensal or parasitized animals, the bacteria usually reside in the kidneys and are introduced into the environment through urine. The leptospires can remain alive for several weeks outside their host as long as they remain damp and warm. Infections occur year round in the tropics, but mainly in the summer, when the weather is warmer. In more temperate regions, infections occur mainly in winter, when rodents are more likely to enter homes for shelter. It has been postulated that human infections in temperate regions may increase with global warming.

Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

Leptospirosis, caused by infection with Leptospira, is considered a zoonotic disease that affects a variety of animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. Humans are only occasionally infected, mostly in the tropics and mostly by contact with dogs or small rodents. The most severe form of human leptospirosis is also known as Weil’s disease, named for Adolph Weil, who first described it in the late nineteenth century. The bacteria usually enter a host when contaminated water comes in contact with abraded skin or with mucous membranes.

Early symptoms of leptospirosis in humans include fever, chills, and headache, which are often mistaken for flu. During this time, bacteria can be isolated from the blood. After a brief asymptomatic phase, bacteria become ensconced in the endothelium of internal organs, such as the liver, the nervous system, the lungs, the heart, and especially the kidneys. This can lead to liver damage, which leads to jaundice, meningitis, pulmonary hemorrhage, renal failure, and, occasionally, cardiovascular problems and delirium. Mortality is common, especially in untreated persons, and is usually caused by pulmonary problems or renal failure.

Drug Susceptibility

Early in the infection, oral doxycycline is the drug of choice. In acute infections, hospitalization and intravenous penicillin G are the preferred treatments. For persons allergic to penicillins, erythromycin is an effective alternative. Third-generation cephalosporins, such as cefotaxime and ceftriaxone, have also been shown to be effective treatments, but dosage must be monitored carefully if the infected person is in renal failure, because these drugs can build up to toxic levels if not cleared properly by the kidneys.

Immunizations for humans are not routine in the United States because the immunizations are serotype specific, and there are many different serotypes. Outside the United States, however, some at-risk workers are immunized against locally endemic serotypes. Immunization of pets, especially dogs, against the more common serotypes can reduce the chance that dogs will become infected and then pass the bacteria to humans.

Bibliography

Madigan, Michael T., et al. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 14th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin, 2015. Print.

World Health Organization and International Leptospirosis Society. Human Leptospirosis: Guidance for Diagnosis, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: WHO, 2003. World Health Organization. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Zuerner, Richard L. “Genus I. Leptospira.” Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Ed. Noel R. Krieg et al. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. New York: Springer, 2010. 546–56. Print.

In Lamb to the Slaughter is Mary Maloney a cold murderer or a victim of circumstances?

Mary is no victim. She is obviously a very resourceful and clever woman who was put in a very challenging situation. She may not be a victim, but her circumstances definitely made her react as if she were a cold blooded killer. In all, Mary would definitely be considered someone who could have become a victim of circumstances but, in a radical way, she chose not to become one. 

The epithet "cold blooded" has its...

Mary is no victim. She is obviously a very resourceful and clever woman who was put in a very challenging situation. She may not be a victim, but her circumstances definitely made her react as if she were a cold blooded killer. In all, Mary would definitely be considered someone who could have become a victim of circumstances but, in a radical way, she chose not to become one. 

The epithet "cold blooded" has its origins in the way that psychologists approximate the behavior of psychopaths to that of someone who cannot be human-like. Since all of us are warm-blooded, a "cold blooded" individual would be, by definition, not normal; he or she is someone who stands out negatively. In the case of a psychopath, this cold blooded type of person has

• no empathy, or ability to bond, sympathize, or connect with others


• no conscience, or capacity to understand the rightness or wrongness in actions. 


• no mercy; a psychopath will hurt anyone, at any given time, without any care in the world. Some of them do it for fun, while others feel it is a compulsion. The point is: They kill for NO reason. 

Mary Malone does not necessarily display psychopathic tendencies. In fact, she seems to have bonded quite well with her husband, appears to love him, and wishes to be subservient to him. She has no history of having hurt him before (that we know of), and she takes good care of her unborn child (aside from that pesky little habit of drinking whisky.)

Nevertheless, Mary is fine. She seems quite human. Moreover, she does have a reason to react the way that she did: Mary was terrified. Perhaps, she was even angry. 

When Patrick tells Mary that he will leave her, even though she is a good wife and is pregnant with their child, he does this in a way that is so cold and careless that it would be hard for any woman to process mentally. Moreover, we could always argue that Mary is pregnant, hormonal, and prone to reacting due to her heavy state. All of these variables: the shock, the pregnancy, the cruel news, the prospects of a life in near destitution, all collaborate to send her on a sudden hysteria. 

Therefore, Mary was just someone whose circumstances made her become something that she is not: a killer. 

Discuss Sioux and Apache resistance against American expansion in the plains and southwestern desert.

Native Americans fiercely resisted white-American intrusions on their lands and heritage. Two groups, in particular, fought with bravery and distinction. The Sioux and Apache Indians fought against American expansion during the second half of the 19th Century. The Sioux, which was a confederation of three linguistically distinct groups, had migrated West from Minnesota in the 17th Century. They adapted to the use of the horse as well as any Native group and were fierce warriors....

Native Americans fiercely resisted white-American intrusions on their lands and heritage. Two groups, in particular, fought with bravery and distinction. The Sioux and Apache Indians fought against American expansion during the second half of the 19th Century. The Sioux, which was a confederation of three linguistically distinct groups, had migrated West from Minnesota in the 17th Century. They adapted to the use of the horse as well as any Native group and were fierce warriors. In 1854, 19 American soldiers were killed by the Sioux at Fort Laramie in Wyoming . This event inspired thirty years of conflict between the Sioux and the U.S. Army. The conflict had its fair share of Sioux victories.  A major Sioux victory was the 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn.  In this battle, Sioux warriors led by Chief Sitting Bull defeated the American army of General George Custer. Despite the bravery and skill of the Sioux warrior, the odds were stacked against them in terms of a total victory over the United States. In 1890, the Wounded Knee Massacre brought a brutal end to effective Sioux resistance.

In the southwestern United States, another confederacy of tribes led a fierce resistance campaign against the United States and Mexico. The Apache Wars (1861-1886) were a sustained attempt by the Native Americans to maintain their land and autonomy. The wars officially started after the Mexican-American War but this group had rebelled against European expansion for decades. The Apache Wars ended with the surrender of Geronimo in 1886.  

According to Richard White's article, "Transcontinental Railroads: Compressing Time and Space," what was the real economic significance of the...

This “bulking up” was not so much a necessity for the movement of people as for the movement of things. The ability to move heavy things long distances at relatively cheap rates was the real economic significance of the railroads.  --Richard White, Transcontinental Railroads: Compressing Time and Space

The Transcontinental Railroad had a way of making the vast stretches of the United States seem relatively small. As a means for moving people, the railroad...

This “bulking up” was not so much a necessity for the movement of people as for the movement of things. The ability to move heavy things long distances at relatively cheap rates was the real economic significance of the railroads.  --Richard White, Transcontinental Railroads: Compressing Time and Space

The Transcontinental Railroad had a way of making the vast stretches of the United States seem relatively small. As a means for moving people, the railroad had a significant impact on the development of the West. According to Richard White, the author of this article, the true economic significance of the railroad was not the movement of people across the continent. The true significance of the railroad was that it could transport heavy objects across the continent at a cheaper rate than was imagined. With the railroads, manufactured goods could be transported anywhere in the United States.  In this way, the railroads opened new markets that were many hundreds of miles from the industrial urban centers of the east. It is for this reason that the industrial boom that occurred after the Civil War is so closely associated with the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad.

What is macular degeneration? |

Causes and Symptoms

The macula is located in the center of the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The retina instantly converts light, or an image, into electrical impulses. The retina then sends these impulses, or nerve signals, to the brain. One of the earliest signs of age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) seen by physicians during a dilated eye examination is deposits of tiny, bright yellow material called drusen, which is harder as a result of aging or softer and larger if associated with ARMD and vision loss. As parts of the eye in the retina and choroid become thinner or lose tissue, central vision and/or peripheral vision is affected, depending on the area of damage. Central vision is needed to see clearly and to perform everyday activities such as reading, writing, driving, and recognizing people and things.
Peripheral vision, needed for walking, is much less commonly affected.

There are two forms of ARMD: early and advanced. About 90 percent of cases are early ARMD, although the advanced type affects 7 percent of those seventy-five years or older. Advanced ARMD is further categorized into two distinct types based on their clinical features: dry and wet. The dry form involves thinning of the macular tissues and disturbances in its pigmentation. About 70 percent of patients have the dry form. The remaining 30 percent have the wet form, which can involve bleeding within and beneath the retina, opaque deposits, and eventually scar tissue. The wet form accounts for 90 percent of all cases of legal blindness
in macular degeneration patients.

Neither dry nor wet macular degeneration causes pain. The most common early sign of dry macular degeneration is blurring vision
that prevents people from seeing details clearly that are in front of them, such as faces or words in a book. In the early stages of wet macular degeneration, straight lines appear wavy or crooked. This is the result of fluid leaking from blood vessels and lifting the macula, distorting vision.

A number of risk factors can affect the initial development of ARMD: age, smoking, genetic predisposition, and ethnicity. Two risk factors have also been studied and suggested in causing a progression of ARMD: nutrition and high blood pressure. Age is the most important risk factor for macular degeneration: The older the patient, the higher the risk. Studies have shown that having a family with a history of macular degeneration raises the risk factor. Because macular degeneration affects most patients later in life, however, it has proven difficult to study cases in successive generations of a family. Heavy smoking, at least a pack of cigarettes a day, can double a person’s risk of developing ARMD. The more a person smokes, the higher the risk of macular degeneration. Moreover, the adverse effects of smoking persist, even fifteen to twenty years after quitting. Those with a family history of ARMD are more likely to develop the disease due to a genetic mutation of part of a gene called the complement factor H gene. With a family history of the disease, the risk is greater for developing the wet type than the dry type of ARMD. Studies have shown that non-Hispanic Caucasians have a greater risk of developing ARMD than do African Americans or Hispanics.

Poor dietary habits contribute to ARMD as well. A diet high in saturated fats may clog the vessels leading to the eyes, thus reducing the flow of nutrient-rich blood. Excess fat may deposit itself directly in the membrane behind the retina. In this case, nutrients might not be able to reach the cells that nourish the retina. High blood pressure has also been shown to increase the risk of developing ARMD in the second eye in those having ARMD in one eye.

An effective test to determine if a person has wet macular degeneration is fluorescent angiography. A special dye is injected into a vein in the patient’s arm and then flows to the blood vessels in the eye. Photographs are taken of the retina. The dye highlights any problems in the blood vessels and allows the doctor to determine if they can be treated. Annual eye examinations that include dilation of the pupils are also useful in early detection. Early detection is important because a person destined to develop macular degeneration can sometimes be treated before symptoms appear, which may delay or reduce the severity of the disease. Anyone who notices a change in vision should contact an ophthalmologist immediately.

Treatment and Therapy

New and exciting treatments are in development for ARMD as extensive research is being done. Currently, there is no cure, and no treatment recommendations exist for those with dry type ARMD, the type that is much less threatening to vision. Some treatments, however, can slow the progression of wet type ARMD. Research has shown that stopping smoking is the most effective preventive measure in regard to developing ARMD and slowing its progression.

Antioxidants have proved promising in recent studies which show that they can lower the risk of progression to more advanced ARMD in those who have moderate or advanced disease. In a major clinical trial called the Age-Related Disease Study (AREDS), it was shown that patients with moderate or severe ARMD taking antioxidants vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta carotene plus zinc and copper had a lower risk of progression among both nonsmokers and smokers. Since the group of smokers who took zinc alone had the same lowered risk of progression as those smokers taking antioxidants plus zinc and copper, it was recommended that smokers with ARMD take zinc alone, as some antioxidants have shown to increase the risk of lung cancer and coronary heart disease when used at high doses.

Although no treatments can reverse the actual pathologic process of the disease of wet type ARMD, some treatments used by ophthalmologists are aimed at containing the damaged vessels that cause the loss of vision. They include laser photocoagulation, photodynamic therapy, intravitreous injections, and, as a last resort, macular translocation surgery.

Laser photocoagulation involves using a high-intensity thermal laser to burn off the blood supply to abnormal choroidal membranes. The benefits of this treatment are that it is done in the outpatient setting using only topical anesthetic drops and that it prevents the formation of new abnormal vessels associated with ARMD for two or three years. It is limited, however, to only those patients with well-defined abnormal areas (only about 15 percent of patients with ARMD). It cannot restore lost vision and may actually destroy normal retinal tissue along with the neovascular formation that is targeted.

Photodynamic therapy involves the injection of a dye called verteporfin which, when activated by a photo laser, forms substances that destroy the abnormal newly formed vessels associated with wet type ARMD. Thus, by the use of this dye and laser combination, the normal vessels are protected and the abnormal vessels are destroyed. It has also been shown that this treatment can be repeated safely.

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors are a class of agents that block a factor involved in the disease process of ARMD. VEGF is essential for the formation of the new abnormal vessels that cause the loss of vision and the anatomic destruction associated with ARMD. The VEGF inhibitors block this factor, thereby limiting those destructive effects. Studies involving these agents have shown that a majority of patients showed improvement in their vision and marked anatomic improvement of their retinas.

Macular translocation surgery involves surgically removing the macula from a diseased area and attaching it to a healthier area of the retina. Although currently an experimental therapy and not well studied, it can be used for those patients in which no other treatment options are left. If performed successfully, macular translocation surgery can improve central vision and allow a majority of patients to read. Great risks are associated with this type of treatment, however, including detachment of the retina and the development of double vision. In addition, use of a steroid injection into the vitreous and/or the posterior sub-Tenon’s space has shown short-term improvement in vision.

Many visual aids have been developed for patients with ARMD to make the most of their remaining vision, including magnifying glasses, powerful special lenses, and large-print books and reading materials. Voice synthesizers in electronic devices such as calculators, clocks, and phones are also very helpful. Maximizing room lighting by the use of stronger lights, opening windows, and painting walls brighter colors can help patients see better at home.

Perspective and Prospects

Blindness or low vision affects 2.6 million Americans aged forty and over, according to the National Eye Institute. This figure is projected to reach 7.1 million by the year 2030 and 13 million by 2050. The study reports that low vision and blindness increase significantly with age, particularly in people over age sixty-five. People eighty years of age and older account for 67 percent of blindness. ARMD affects about 15 percent of the US population by age fifty-five and more than 30 percent by age seventy-five. It is the most common cause of legal blindness in people over the age of fifty-five.

Although there is no cure for ARMD, many treatments are available to curtail progression of the disease. As extensive research continues in this area, advances in the diagnosis and treatment of this debilitating condition are anticipated by many in the field of ophthalmology. Currently, the National Eye Institute is studying the possibility of transplanting healthy cells into a diseased retina, evaluating families with a history of ARMD to understand genetic and hereditary factors that may cause the disease, and looking at certain anti-inflammatory treatments for the wet form of ARMD.

Bibliography

American Macular Degeneration Foundation. http://www.macular.org.

D’Amato, Robert, and Joan Snyder. Macular Degeneration: The Latest Scientific Discoveries and Treatments for Preserving Your Sight. New York: Walker, 2000.

Heier, Jeffrey S. One Hundred Questions and Answers About Macular Degeneration. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2011.

Ho Allen C., and Carl D. Regillo. Age-Related Macular Degeneration Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Springer, 2011.
Kansai, Jack. Diseases of the Macula. New York: Elsevier, 2002.

Macular Degeneration Foundation. http://www.eye sight.org.

MayoClinic.com. “Macular Degeneration.” http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/macular-degeneration/DS00284.

Samuel, Michael A. Macular Degeneration: A Complete Guide for Patients and Their Families. Laguna Beach, Calif.: Basic Health, 2008.

Sardegna, Jill, et al. The Encyclopedia of Blindness and Vision Impairment. 2d ed. New York: Facts On File, 2002.

Sutton, Amy L., ed. Eye Care Sourcebook: Basic Consumer Health Information About Eye Care and Eye Disorders. 3d ed. Detroit, Mich.: Omnigraphics, 2008.

What is apnea? |

Causes and Symptoms

People normally experience brief pauses in breathing.
When these pauses last more than twenty seconds or are accompanied by bradycardia (slow heart rate) or cyanosis
(bluish skin from poor blood oxygenation), however, they can be life threatening. This condition is referred to as apnea.

Apnea can be categorized into three types based on whether inspiratory muscle activity is present. In central apnea, which has a neurological cause, there is no activity of inspiratory muscles following expiration. Central apnea is uncommon except in cases of prematurity in infants. Obstructive apnea, the most common type, occurs when the person is making an effort to breathe, so inspiratory muscles are moving. As a result of a blockage, however, air cannot flow into or out of the person’s nose or mouth. This condition typically occurs while the patient is asleep and is characterized by snoring, gasping for air, or stridor (noisy breathing). It is seen in people who have a physical obstruction in the airway, who experience gastroesophageal reflux, or who are overweight. The third type of apnea is mixed apnea, which is a combination of central and obstructive apnea. It is usually seen in young children and can occur while asleep or awake.

Individuals with apnea will often show decreases in heart rate, oxygen saturation, peripheral blood flow, and muscle tone. Adults suffering from sleep
apnea may exhibit depression, irritability, learning difficulty, and sleepiness during the day. With sleep apnea, there can be up to sixty apneic episodes per hour, with snoring or choking in between.

All forms of apnea can be diagnosed by electrophysiological testing. Pneumograms are often done on premature babies to record their pattern of breathing over a twelve-hour period. Polysomnography is used for older children and adults to record electrical activity of the brain, muscle activity, heart rate, airflow, oxygen levels in the body, and eye movement.

Treatment and Therapy

The treatment of apnea can be based on medication, mechanical treatment, or surgery. The category of drugs used to treat apnea is xanthines. Mechanical treatment involves the use of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), a mask worn over the nose during sleep that forces air through the nasal passages. Another potential treatment involves the use of a mandibular advancement device (MAD), a specially designed and fitted oral appliance that prevents obstruction of the throat during sleep. Surgery may be performed to remove an obstruction or to increase the size of the airway. Overweight patients are often encouraged to exercise and improve their diet.

Perspective and Prospects

Studies have indicated that people with obstructive sleep apnea have less gray matter in their brains. Research is being done to determine if the lack of gray matter leads to the apnea or the lack of oxygen caused by apnea causes deterioration in the brain.

Bibliography:

George, Ronald B. Current Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine. Vol. 17. Philadelphia: Mosby, 1996.

Klaus, Marshall H., and Avroy A. Fanaroff, eds. Care of the High-Risk Neonate. 5th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2001.

Pack, Allan, ed. Sleep Apnea: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment. 2d ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2008.

“Sleep Apnea.” MedlinePlus, Apr. 19, 2013.

White, Emily, Thomas Workman, Amir Sharafkhaneh, and Michael Fordis. “Treating Sleep Apnea: A Review of the Research for Adults.” Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Aug. 8, 2011.

What is brain damage? |

Causes and Symptoms

Brain
damage can occur as a result of several causes. Therefore, physicians have found it helpful to categorize the types of injuries that most often lead to the death of brain
cells. The most common type that leads to brain damage is the closed head injury. It occurs when a problem, such as the disruption of blood flow to the brain, prevents vital oxygen and nutrients from reaching the cells that make up the brain. If the brain is deprived of oxygen and glucose for more than six or seven seconds, then a person usually becomes unconscious and brain cells begin to die.

Accidents such as automobile collisions, falls, and sports injuries can lead to brain damage by causing the brain to bleed inside the cranium. This kind of closed head injury frequently results in brain swelling that puts pressure on delicate structures, preventing them from working properly and sometimes leading to permanent damage. Strokes
also result in brain damage either by blocking normal blood flow within the arteries that feed the brain or by causing a blood vessel to break and leak blood into surrounding tissue.

When brain damage occurs, symptoms may include motor control problems, paralysis, and difficulty with balance and the integration of sensory information. In the case of an accident that leads to brain damage, it would not be uncommon to see cognitive functions affected, creating speech and language difficulties, memory loss, and problems with concentration and attention. Problems with motivation and the expression of emotions may develop, and to some degree a person’s personality can be altered because of brain damage. In cases of extensive damage, the result could be loss of consciousness, coma, and even death.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment for brain damage begins with an assessment of the cause and extent of the injury. Several distinct technologies can be used to image not only the structures of the brain but the functioning of specific areas as well. If bleeding or swelling of the brain is suspected, then a computed tomography (CT) scan can be used to provide pictures of the brain to assess which structures are implicated. If a tumor or areas of localized damage is suspected, then magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is more helpful because of its ability to create a clear, well-defined image.

Specialized neuropsychological tests are used to determine the extent of deficits in thinking—such as language processing, memory, and decision making—as well as in sensory perception and motor functioning. Visual diagnostics alone usually cannot determine the specific impact on mental processes and specific functions. Neuropsychological procedures, often administered in a particular array, or test battery, along with visual imaging, provide the best appreciation for how the damage affects brain function.

Since there are several different causes of brain damage, treatments can vary. Drug therapy can be used in instances where the brain is being damaged by swelling or when an artery inside the brain is partially blocked. High doses of antibiotics can be used when damage occurs as a result of a bacterial infection. If a weakened artery is found that is leaking blood into the brain or a tumor is detected using an MRI, then surgery could be recommended. In instances where no immediate treatment can be performed, specific rehabilitation therapies are used to stimulate surviving brain tissue that is near the injury to take over some of the functioning of the damaged tissue.

Perspective and Prospects

Although brain injuries have occurred since the beginning of humankind, the question of what the brain does and how it contributes to behavior has only been partially answered. There is evidence from human skull remains that small holes were drilled as a form of crude brain surgery as far back as 2000 BCE. The purpose of the procedure is unknown; however, it could have helped an injured person by relieving brain swelling. Prior to the first century CE, it was not widely accepted that the brain was the center for reasoning, emotions, and movement. During early human history, the heart was believed to control the thoughts and emotions. Galen of Pergamum (130–201 CE), a Roman physician, was influential in bringing forth the notion that the brain, and not the heart, gave rise to behavior. He learned much about the brain and its impact on behavior by observing injured gladiators who survived fierce battles in the Roman coliseum.

Prospects for future therapies to compensate for brain damage include stem cell tissue transplantation to stimulate new brain cell development. Better drugs are being developed for stroke victims whose blood has leaked into the brain and had begun killing nearby cells. Also, brain imaging technologies are continuing to be refined to produce clearer pictures that allow practitioners to make more accurate diagnoses.

Bibliography:

Brain Injury Association of America. "Diagnosing Brain Injury." Brain Injury Association of America, 2013.

Cooper, Paul R., and John G. Golfinos, eds. Head Injury. 4th ed. New York: McGraw, 2000.

Dallas, Mary Elizabeth. "HealthDay: Brain Imaging Detects Tiny Lesions Related to Mild Injury: Study." MedlinePlus, Mar. 12, 2013.

Gronwall, Dorothy, Philip Wrightson, and Peter Waddell. Head Injury: The Facts—A Guide for Families and Care-Givers. 2d ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1998.

Landau, Elaine. Head and Brain Injuries. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2002.

Who is Burris Ewell? How does he scare Miss Caroline?

Burris Ewell is a member of the Ewell family. He is the son of Bob Ewell and the younger brother of Mayella Ewell. Scout describes Burris as

"the filthiest human [she] had ever seen. His neck was dark gray, the backs of his hands were rusty, and his fingernails were black deep into the quick" (To Kill a Mockingbird, chapter 3).

On the first day of school, Burris Ewell announces his intention to...

Burris Ewell is a member of the Ewell family. He is the son of Bob Ewell and the younger brother of Mayella Ewell. Scout describes Burris as

"the filthiest human [she] had ever seen. His neck was dark gray, the backs of his hands were rusty, and his fingernails were black deep into the quick" (To Kill a Mockingbird, chapter 3).

On the first day of school, Burris Ewell announces his intention to leave and go home. He tells Miss Caroline that this is his third time attending only the first day of the first grade.

Miss Caroline spots lice in Burris' hair. She is greatly disturbed. She is afraid that if he does not leave and treat his head lice, the other students in the class may also get it. She tells Burris to wash his hair with lye soap and then treat his scalp with kerosene. Burris is defiant and insults Miss Caroline. He leaves the classroom only after he makes his teacher cry.

What is computer addiction? |

Causes

With personal computers becoming commonplace in the 1990s came an increase in the numbers of children who appeared to be obsessive computer users, primarily focused on video games. Children and teenagers moved from nonelectronic fantasy games to video arcades to home computers, dramatically increasing the numbers of children and teens playing video games.

These games are purchased or are resident programs in desktop computers, laptop computers, and dedicated video gaming units, or consoles. While some video games are available over the Internet, many are sold in packaged software for use with a general purpose computer or a dedicated computer unit; other computers are designed and advertised as gaming computers.

Computer addiction and particularly video game
addiction continue to expand as electronic media use
increases and as more computers come in smaller and more portable sizes, such as
tablets and smartphones. A 2013 survey by Nielsen found electronic media use by
American preteens and teenagers has surged to almost eleven hours per day. The
results surprised researchers because they thought that 8.5 hours of electronic
media use in 2004 represented the maximum time left in a student’s average
day.

Students have been able to push their electronic life several hours higher by
multitasking with electronic devices. Home computer ownership reached 84 percent
in 2014. Ownership of laptop computers rose from 12 to 61 percent from 2004 to
2012. Cell phones (or smartphones) are now handheld computers and hold many
resident games. In 2004, only 18 percent of students owned a cell phone; in 2013
that number reached 78 percent, of which 47 percent were smartphones. Furthermore,
the main use of cell phones for youths is not to make calls. Tasks that tend to
take more of their time on the phone include texting (text messaging), watching
other media, and video gaming.

Also problematic is video gaming in the workplace. Depending on the availability
of computers, work time and productivity lost to video games and other
nonwork-related computer use can exceed 10 percent.

Risk Factors

Researcher Douglas A. Gentile published a survey of eight- to eighteen-year-olds
in the United States and found that 12 percent of boys were addicted to video
games. Only 3 percent of girls were addicted to video game. Also, insofar as
computers require a level of affluence, computer addiction is a problem mainly for
developed and advanced-developing countries.

A Kaiser Family Foundation survey found that while daily use of all electronic
media did not vary much by gender (eleven hours and twelve minutes for boys versus
ten hours and seventeen minutes for girls), girls lost interest in computer video
games and played less as teenagers, averaging only three minutes per day. Some
researchers suggest that computer addiction is a major cause of the worldwide “boy
problem,” in which boys are dropping out of academics and girls predominating in
the higher levels of education. The decline in boys in academics parallels the
rise of personal computer technology.

Symptoms

Researcher Margaret A. Shotton was the first to extensively document computer
addiction and dependency, although primarily through anecdotal cases and with
references to early video arcade games. Ricardo A. Tejeiro Salguero proposed a
problem video-game-playing (PVP) scale in 2002. Because problematic video gaming
is a behavioral
addiction (in contrast with a chemical addiction), video
gaming was more closely associated with compulsive
gambling. Gentile developed a similar scale of eleven
self-reported negative factors. Having a minimum of six symptoms of the eleven on
the scale was set as the threshold for addiction.

The correlation between computer addiction as determined by Gentile’s scale and
poorer grades in school, for example, could have been an indication of
comorbidity; that is, a child might spend more time on the computer and get poor
grades because of a separate but common factor.

Proof that pathological video game addiction causes a decline in academics was established by Robert Weis and Brittany C. Cerankosky. After establishing a group of boys’ academic baseline achievement, they gave one-half of the boys access to computer video games and saw their academics decline. The control group continued on with solid schoolwork.

An extensive Kaiser Family Foundation survey found an inverse relationship between
electronic media use and good grades, with 51 percent of heavy users getting good
grades versus 66 percent of light users getting good grades. Heavy users were less
likely to get along with their parents, were less happy at school, were more often
bored, got into trouble at twice the average rate, and were often sad or unhappy
compared with light users.

Screening and Diagnosis

Salguero and Gentile both proposed a multiple-factor scale to designate pathological computer video gaming. Extensive time spent playing computer games is not a sufficient indicator of addiction. However, when combined with risk factors of low social competence and higher impulsivity, there is a greater chance of pathological gaming that can result in anxiety, depression, social phobia, and poor school performance. There may be a correlation of computer addiction and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that may be related to a child’s difficulty relating normally in social settings, but these are a minority of cases.

Treatment and Therapy

At the public policy level, Western countries appear little concerned with computer addiction beyond lost workplace productivity. The main societal concerns are in Asia, where there is much more focus on the pool of intellectual talent and more concern with children’s academic success. Several Asian nations have attempted to place limits on the amount of time that teenagers can spend on computers per day; most indications are that these limits are easily circumvented by tech-savvy students.

Modeled on summer camps for overweight children are China’s experimental summer
camps for weaning students from computer addiction. Programs beginning in the
United States attempt to use counseling to treat, for example, the psychological
problems and antisocial feelings that may coexist with computer addiction. Other
programs use outdoor wilderness experiences. Limited evidence exists of the
success of these types of programs.

Prevention

Because computers and the evolving tablets, e-readers, cell phones, and other media that are primarily small computers are presumed to be technical advances, little likelihood exists of establishing regulatory measures or controls on the availability of computers and video games. In 2011, the US Supreme Court rejected regulation of violent computer video games in the United States. This leaves the control of children’s access in the hands of teachers and parents. Surveys show many parents have a low level of concern about or have little desire to regulate their children’s computer activities.

Bibliography

Chiu, Shao-I, Jie-Zhi
Lee, and Der-Hsiang Huang. “Video Game Addiction in Children and Teenagers
in Taiwan.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior 7 (2004): 571–81.
Print.

Gentile, Douglas A.
“Pathological Video-Game Use among Youths Ages 8 to 18: A National Study.”
Psychological Science 20 (2009): 594–602. Print.

Gentile, Douglas A.,
et al. “Pathological Video-Game Use among Youths: A Two-Year Longitudinal
Study.” Pediatrics 127 (2011): 319–29. Print.

Madden, Mary, et al. "Teens and Technology
2013." Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center, 13 Mar.
2013. Web. 3 Nov. 2015.

Nielsen. "An Era of Growth: The
Cross-Platform Report Q4 2013." Nielsen. Nielsen, 5 Mar.
2014. Web. 3 Nov. 2015.

Rideout, Victoria J.,
Ulla G. Foehr, and Donald F. Roberts. “‘Generation M2’: Media in the Lives
of 8- to 18-Year-Olds—A Kaiser Family Foundation Study.” Jan. 2010. Web. 16
Apr. 2012.

Salguero, Ricardo A.
Tejeiro, and Rosa M. Bersabe Moran. “Measuring Problem Video Game Playing in
Adolescents.” Addiction 97 (2002): 1601–6.
Print.

Shotton, Margaret A.
Computer Addiction? A Study of Computer Dependency. New
York: Taylor, 1989. Print.

Shotton, Margaret A.
“The Costs and Benefits of ‘Computer Addiction.’” Behaviour and
Information Technology 10 (1991): 219–30. Print.

Weis, Robert, and
Brittany C. Cerankosky. “Effects of Video-Game Ownership on Young Boys’
Academic and Behavioral Functioning: A Randomized, Controlled Study.”
Psychological Science 21 (2010): 463–70. Print.

Why is history interesting, and how does it help us today?

History is very interesting because it does help us today. So many events in history have relevance to current events. History repeats itself over and over again. The names and places may change, but the basic events are very similar. If you can see the similarities between past and present events, you should see how relevant history is. It is our job to learn from the past so we don’t keep repeating the same mistakes...

History is very interesting because it does help us today. So many events in history have relevance to current events. History repeats itself over and over again. The names and places may change, but the basic events are very similar. If you can see the similarities between past and present events, you should see how relevant history is. It is our job to learn from the past so we don’t keep repeating the same mistakes now and in the future.

A fairly recent example of this can be seen with the Great Recession of 2008-2010. There are some parallels between the events of the Great Recession to the events of the Great Depression of the 1930s. One of the events leading to the Great Depression was risky investment practices. In the 1920s, banks made loans to many people who were already in debt or who didn’t have an income level that could support the loans they were receiving. People were also investing in companies without doing much research on these companies. In the Great Recession of 2008-2010, banks again made risky loans. This time, it was to people who wanted to buy a home. Some of these people didn’t have the income level to support the loan they were receiving. When these people couldn’t pay back their loan, banks suffered big losses. This helped send the economy into a downward spiral. If we had learned some lessons from the events leading to the Great Depression, the banks wouldn’t have made some of these risky loans.

There are many parallels between the past and the present. If we learn from the past, we can make better decisions now and in the future.

In what three places did Anton Rosicky live before settling in Nebraska?

He lived in Czechoslovakia; London, England; and New York City, New York, in the US.

The narrator explains where Anton lived while he's sitting in his "corner," remembering the past. "He had a good deal to remember, really; life in three countries," the narrator states. So we know that he has lived in three different nations.

Anton grew up in the country on his grandparents' farm in Czechoslovakia, then was sent to live with his dad and stepmom when his grandfather died. Unhappy there, he moved to London, where he worked for a poor tailor and was miserable. He was able to escape to New York, where he found happiness and more tailoring work. But a craving for nature and for farm work led him to Omaha, Nebraska.

"Neighbor Rosicky" is a story that relies heavily on flashbacks, which is where this information is found, specifically in Section 3. The flashbacks themselves don't necessarily follow a strict chronological order, either, since they are Anton's memories as he recalls them. So, if you were given this question about where Anton had lived, and you were expecting the narrator to start the story from the beginning of Anton's life and explain where he lived before settling in Nebraska, you'd be confused. A can help, so that you have an overview of how the story flows and where you might find the specific information you need within it.

What is asphyxiation? |

The phenomenon whereby the body experiences a decrease in oxygen below normal levels is called hypoxia; extreme cases of hypoxia lead to anoxia, a complete lack of oxygen. The difference between anoxia and asphyxia is that in asphyxia an accumulation of excess carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) takes place, as the normal exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs is obstructed.

Respiration is regulated in the medulla, while chemoreceptors present in the aortic arch and the carotid sinus respond to levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and the pH in blood and the cerebrospinal fluid. The concentration of carbon dioxide pressure in the plasma is proportional to the oxygen pressure. Generally, oxygen deprivation may be the consequence of one or more of several conditions. In all cases, damage results that leads first to hypoxia and eventually to death.

Types of oxygen deprivation. In the first condition, respiration may be slowed or stopped by injury or foreign material blocking the air passage. The most common example of this case is asphyxia that results from the inhalation of water by exhausted swimmers or persons who cannot swim. Large quantities of water fill the lungs and cut off the oxygen supply. Other examples include the entrapment of food or liquid in the respiratory tract, strangulation, and residence in high altitude. In these cases, the carbon dioxide pressure is drastically increased. Artificial respiration may save the victim’s life; it should be performed as soon as possible and after the removal of the inhaled foreign substance via vomiting. Strangulation provides the more serious problem of capillary rupturing and internal bleeding.

A second condition, hypoxic anoxia, is caused by an inadequate concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, which occurs in poorly ventilated enclosed spaces such as mine tunnels, sewers, or industrial areas. Odorless gases such as methane (which is produced in decomposing sewage) or nitrogen may be dangerous because they generally go undetected. A former way of detecting such gases involved taking along a bird in a cage and monitoring its well-being during the exploration of unknown caves or ancient tombs.

In anemic anoxia, respiration may not be effective because of the reduced capacity of the blood to become oxygenated; as a result, less oxygen is transferred to the tissues. Carbon monoxide behaves differently from methane or nitrogen, since it binds much more strongly to hemoglobin than oxygen does. Thus the hemoglobin, which is the oxygen-carrying component of blood, does not transfer oxygen to the tissues, which are starved of it. The passage of oxygen from the lung alveoli to the adjacent blood capillaries may also be affected, such as with chronic lung disease, infections, or developmental effects.

A fourth category is stagnant anoxia, whereby a reduced flow of blood through the blood tissues takes place. This may be a generalized condition, attributable to heart disease, or localized, which may take place in a pilot during aerial maneuvers, for example. A blackout of an aviator is a result of the heart’s inability to pump enough blood to these regions against the high centrifugal force. In some cases, the carbon dioxide pressure cannot be removed in the usual manner by the lung. Any lung disease will decrease the effective removal of carbon dioxide and therefore result in elevated levels of it in the blood. Thus in emphysema, a disease in which the alveoli increase in size and which leads to a reduction of the surface area available for gas exchange, carbon dioxide will be retained in the blood. In bronchopneumonia, the alveoli contain secretions, white cells, bacteria, and fibrin, which prevent an efficient gas exchange.

In histotoxic anoxia, the failure of cellular respiration is observed. The body’s cells are unable to utilize oxygen as a result of poisoning, as from cyanide. The supply of oxygen is normal, but the cells are unable to metabolize the oxygen that is delivered to them.

Symptoms. All cases of anoxia may lead to oxygen deprivation in the brain, which may be fatal if it lasts more than a few minutes. Nerve cell degeneration may start and continue, despite the fact that the original cause of anoxia is removed and normal breathing is resumed. Many health conditions may interfere with the blood transport of oxygen, which is accomplished via the red blood cells. Such diseases include cases of anemia, trauma, hemorrhage, and circulatory disease.

The body responds to oxygen deprivation with an increase in the rate or depth of breathing. The normal, sea-level oxygen pressure of the air is approximately 160 millimeters (6.2 inches) of mercury. When the oxygen pressure is reduced to 110 millimeters (4.2 inches) of mercury at an altitude of about three thousand meters (ten thousand feet), the pulse rate increases and the volume of blood pumped from the heart also increases. Although prolonged exposure to low oxygen pressure may bring the pulse rate back to normal, the output of the heart remains elevated. Despite the lack of oxygen, both the heart and the brain function because of the dilation of their blood cells and the increased oxygen extraction from the blood. Anoxia leads to vision problems first, while hearing is generally the last sense to go. It is not unusual for a person who is suffering from anoxia to be incapable of moving but able to hear.

Heartsaver Manual: A Student Handbook for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and First Aid for Choking. Dallas, Tex.: American Heart Association, 1987.

Hendrick, David J. Occupational Disorders of the Lung: Recognition, Management, and Prevention. New York: W. B. Saunders, 2002.

Kittredge, Mary. The Respiratory System. Edited by Dale C. Garell. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2000.

Krementz, Jill. How It Feels to Fight for Your Life. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989.

Lutz, Peter L., and Goran E. Nilsson. The Brain without Oxygen: Causes of Failure—Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms for Survival. 3d ed. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2003.

West, John B. Pulmonary Pathophysiology: The Essentials. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013.

West, John B. Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012.